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Week 12: Thursday, April 14

Maps

This linguistic map of Europe in 1914 does not necessarily represent ethnic or national territories, but it does provide a rough idea of what those ethnic and national territories were. The map also represents how difficult it would have been to draw up political boundaries that corresponded to these ethnic and national territories.

On the eve of World War I, empires still dominated Eastern Europe. The retreat of the Ottoman Empire from the European continent over the course of the nineteenth century, however, had already led to the creation of six new states: Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania. Otherwise, much of Europe consisted of empires and large states.

This map shows the boundaries of Europe after World War I while representing the territories lost by the defeated powers after World War I. The dark green represents Germany after the war while the light green shows the territories it lost as a result of the Paris settlement. The Soviet Union is red, with the pinkish areas lost by that state as a result of the Paris settlement. The grey areas represent the former state of Austria-Hungary which disappeared entirely after the war. Montenegro, in yellow, was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (eventually renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). The lavender area represents the territory lost by Bulgaria as a result of the war.

World War I did not make much of an impact on territorial boundaries in Western Europe (with the notable exception that Germany returned the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France). The east was quite a different matter. The disintegration of the Russian Empire after 1917 led to the creation of independent Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Germany also ceded territory to the new state of Poland. The old Austro-Hungarian Empire had totally disintegrated, leaving behind a small Austria that consisted almost exclusively of German-speaking peoples. Hungary was also much smaller compared to its extent within the old, dual Austro-Hungarian Empire. Czechoslovakia was a diverse state consisting of Bohemians/Czechs, Germans, Slovaks, and Poles. Rumania grew tremendously in size to include a variety of other peoples, while the new Yugoslavia was in some ways nothing more than a much-augmented Serbia that ruled over Croats, Slovenes, and Montenegrins. Bulgaria diminished in size due in part to Greece's expansion. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire meant that Turkey was divorced from its possessions in Mesopotamia, the Holy Land, and Arabia. The territorial arrangement in the east depended on the weakness or good will of Germany and the Soviet Union. Between these two great powers (from Finland to Greece), thirteen weak or vulnerable states had emerged. How long could these new nations maintain their independence?

French Poster Art of World War I

What a Difference a War Makes

This poster (like many of those that follow) encouraged civilians to subscribe to the second national defense loan (1915). During World War I, all governments hoped people on the home front would invest in government bonds—it was an excellent means of raising money without resorting to additional taxation. The government obtained ready cash, and investors got an annuity in return. To whip up enthusiasm among potential investors, propaganda of this sort sought to inspire enthusiasm for the conflict, appealed through a variety of patriotic symbols, and often provided some sort of promise of eventual victory. After all, defeat would probably lead to the collapse of the government and a default on the bonds.

Here, an enthusiastic, young soldier reaches for the sky as he presumably leads his comrades on the offensive toward victory. "On les aura!" was a French slogan from the period, which translates as "We'll get 'em!"

This poster, produced three years later in 1918, is of an entirely different character. By the end of the war, around 1.5 million French soldiers had lost their lives and another 1 million had suffered permanent disability. Notice how this soldier has transformed himself into a grim surivor of an apolcalyptic landscape. Rooted in the earth, he has assumed a defensive and vigilant stance. Gone are the days of lighthearted enthusiasm. Even the slogan has become less optimistic—"On ne passe pas!" translates roughly into, "They will not pass!" (a slogan made famous at the Battle of Verdun). The soldier warns fellow Frenchmen against those of their countrymen who would seek a negotiated peace with the Germans: "Twice I have held and conquered on the Marne [River]. My brother civilian, the cunning offensive of the "white peace" will attack you in your turn. Like me, you must hold and conquer. Be strong and shrewd. Beware of Boche [German] hypocrisy."

Symbols at War

A plea on behalf of a national loan, this poster shows Marianne in a much more warlike mood than earlier representations. She tells people to buy bonds "For the flag! For victory!"

In this poster for the second national defense loan, Marianne appears to have recovered her equilibrium. She sits placidly at the foot of what looks like the Arc de Triomphe, accompanied by a cupid-like toddler wearing a French helmet and handling a sword. At her feet, a diverse group of French people, including a little girl with a piggy-bank, an old peasant, and a matron, leave their money. The caption on the steps reads: "Forward, Army of Savings. It's for the fatherland."

Here Marianne follows behind a group of three French soldiers. In her right hand, she holds a sheaf of wheat, while in her left, she shakes a cornucopia (symbol of abundance) out of which tumbles coins and banknotes. This poster encourages civilians to invest in the liberation loan.

The traditional Gallic rooster in a twenty-franc gold coin attacks a frightened German soldier. The poster says: "Pour out your gold for France. Gold fights for victory."

This poster mixes symbols from classical antiquity and the modern age. A naked French soldier goes into combat with a sword and a helmet, defending the flag from a rapacious German eagle. The poster encourages subscription to the fourth national loan.

Napoleon built the Arc de Triomphe to commemorate his many victories in Europe. As French soldiers march past this monument, they are joined by the spirit of Napoleon's marshals and troops. The poster asserts, "For the triumph, subscribe to the national loan."

The French soldier, the "poilu," also became an important symbol of the French nation's will to resist. A decorated, non-commissioned officer surveys no-man's land in this poster. The caption reads: "Standing upright in the trench lit by daybreak, the soldier dreams of victory and his home. So that he can be assured of one and recover the other, subscribe to the 3rd National Defense Loan."

The Family and War

A peasant family hails the return of the soldier-father. The son waves the olive branch of peace. The poster says: "For the return of the victorious soldier, subscribe to the Bank of the Nord [a department in Northern France]."

A French soldier prepares to leave for the front, hugging his daughter as his wife takes care of an infant. People ought to subscribe to the third national defense loan, "For France that fights! For she that grows each day."

Looking toward the Peace

This poster encourages people to invest in a "peace loan" that will facilitate the reconstruction of devastated regions in France. A farmer looks over his wife's shoulder as she nurses their child.

A poster for a national loan looks forward to the day of eventual victory. Three veterans hoist a French flag atop what might be the steeple of a church. Behind them, one can see an old medieval-looking town. Beyond a river in the middle background stands a number of productive factories.