Participants
There were
fourteen undergraduate students who participated in this experiment taken
from a Northern, private, liberal arts, Catholic college (five males, nine
females). The participants were obtained through a poster sign-up located
in the Psychology department of the college with a brief description of
what was required of each participant. Informed consent was obtained from
each participant prior to the study, briefly stating the rules and expectations
of each participant (see Appendix A). Each participant was also debriefed
after the completion of the study (see Appendix B). Each participant was
required to exercise for twenty minutes, preferably in exercise attire
and sneakers. The participants were also asked to complete two questionnaires
at the end of the workout (the Profile of Mood States and the Borg Scale
of Perceived Exertion). The participants were between the ages of eighteen
and twenty one years old. This study followed the ethical guidelines set
forth by the college as well as the ethical guidelines written under the
American Psychological Association ethical standards.
Design
This experiment utilized a three-group design.
Dependent measures in this study consisted of mean heart rate, mean distance
ran, self-reported perceived exertion, and mood scale (comparing tension,
depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion, and friendliness). The independent
between group variables were the three different conditions of music being
played (fast, slow, or none). The within subject variable was the type
of music each participant listened to while running. An analysis of variance
was used to examine the results of all these variables. The study was designed
to investigate if there were any significant differences between the groups
and to measure any relationships between the music, self-reported perceived
exertion, mood enhancement, distance ran, and/or heart rate. The design
examined whether the different types of music had a significant role during
exercise.
Materials
Music
The experiment contained three different conditions
or groups of background music: a fast tempo, a slow tempo, and no music.
The music was provided by the Top 40.charts.com, which consists of the
most popular songs based on web traffic and the Top 40 chart.com, which
is comprised due to air play and record sales (updated weekly). The first
independent group of music used had an upbeat, fast tempo and was taken
from the Music Billboard Top Forty weekly songs based on sale records.
The songs taken from the Top Forty weekly chart were songs categorized
with a fast beat, mainly hip-hop. The reason for using the top forty weekly
songs was so each participant would be familiar with the songs playing
during the workout since they were the most popular at the time. The second
independent group of music used was again from the Music Billboards Top
Forty weekly songs, but had a more contemporary, slow rhythm. The second
group of music was slowed paced to provide a significant decrease in the
tempo between the first independent group of music and the second. The
third and last condition played no music in order to obtain a baseline.
These three conditions were selected in order to ensure that there was
a considerable difference between the beat and tempo of each selection
of music that was played throughout the experiment.
CD
The fast tempo CD included five songs. The
order of the songs was determined by using the highest selling and most
air-played song on the weekly countdown and then preceding down from there
(Top 40.charts.com). The songs included: Baby Boy, by Beyonce Knowles featuring
Sean Paul, Shake ya Tailfeather, by Nelly, featuring P. Diddy and Murphy
Lee, Crazy in Love, by Beyonce Knowles featuring Jay Z, Bring Me to Life,
by Evanescence, and Get Low, by Lil John and East Side Boyz. The slow CD
(again starting with the highest selling and most air time) consisted of
Here Without You, by 3 Doors Down, Into You, by Fabulous, Someday, by Nickelback,
Unwell, by Matchbox Twenty, Calling all Angels, by Train, and So Far Away,
by Stained. The CD was made by the experimenter on a Dell Notebook computer.
The CD's were marked accordingly and each participant only listened to
the specific music designated for him or her (random assignment prior to
the start of the experiment) from the burned CD.
CD Player
The CD was played on a portable CD player.
This portable CD player was purchased in August, 2003. The volume level
reaches 12 and can only hold one CD at a time. It requires six C batteries
or can be plugged into an electrical outlet. It has FM/AM radio, a tape
deck, and a CD holder. The volume was set on three and a half so the music
could be heard, but was not overpowering and was consistent for each participant
despite the type of music playing.
Profile of Mood States and The Borg Scale
of Perceived Exertion
Each participant was also required to complete
the POMS mood scale (Profile of Mood States) following his or her exercise
for the purpose of acquiring the mood of each participant directly after
exercise. The Profile of Mood States is a 65 item, Likert-type questionnaire.
Subscales of the POMS include depression, anger, tension, fatigue, vigor,
confusion, and friendliness. The internal consistency of the POMS ranges
from .84 to .95, while test-retest reliability coefficients range from
.65 to .74 (Hansen, Stevens & Coast, 2001). After completing the POMS
mood scale, each participant was then given the Borg Scale of Perceived
Exertion (see Appendix B). The Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion rated the
amount of self-reported perceived exertion from a scale of six to twenty
(six being the lowest amount exerted). It is a tool to estimate the perceived
exertion, breathlessness, and fatigue during exercise (Borg, 140). This
scale was used in many of the studies previously described in the literature
and is rated to be reliable and valid. The obtained validity correlation
is around .85 (Borg, 1998), while the average mean for re-test reliability
is between .83 and .90. The participants were asked to rate how hard they
perceived the exercise based on this scale from six to twenty.
Apparatus
Elliptical Machine
Each Participant was required to run on the
elliptical machine within the laboratory of the Psychology Department of
Saint Anselm College. The elliptical machine was purchased from Scifit
equipment (Scientific Solutions for Fitness) on May 6, 2003 from the Precision
Fitness Equipment store in Natick, MA. The cost of the machine was three
thousand five hundred and ninety five dollars. The elliptical machine used
was an SXT7000 series and included features such as, a cordless model to
increase versatility and for expediency, a contact heart rate, which allowed
monitoring of heart rate throughout the workout, and a bi-directional installment,
which enabled each participant to reverse direction when running (however
no participant did so). It was equipped with large handles for correct
body positioning while exercising and the speed of the elliptical machine
was dependent on how fast the user was pedaling (http://www.scifit.com).
Polar Heart
Rate Monitor
The participants were also asked to wear a
polar heart rate monitor. The purpose of the polar heart monitor was to
record an accurate heart rate every minute for twenty minutes. It was specifically
designed for beginner exercisers to record their heart rate during exercise.
There were two parts to this device. The first part was the elastic strap.
This was placed on each participant, prior to running, underneath the chest
muscles. The polar heart rate monitor strap, a wireless ECG accurate that
coded transmissions for heart rate, was worn during exercise in order to
obtain accurate measurements of the physiological effects occurring during
the exercise. The second part was a watch that read the heart rate (the
experimenter only need to press one button and it started recording heart
rate), as well as the elliptical machine, which also picked up the polar
heart rate and visibly showed the heart rate on its monitor (Polar.com).
The polar heart rate was purchased by the Psychology Department in May,
2002.
Procedure
The sign-up sheet for this experiment was
posted in the psychology department by October 9, 2003 for participants
to sign up for the experiment during the weeks of October 13, 2003 and
October 20, 2003. Prior to the start of the experiment, the music was counterbalanced
for the order in which the music conditions were presented. This was done
to control for the order in each category of music was listened to. The
participants were randomly assigned to one of the three different music
groups (fast, slow, or none) . The random assignment took place prior to
the start of the experiment. The time of day in which each participant
exercised was also held constant in all of the conditions.
The fourteen different participants came to
run on the elliptical machine for twenty minutes in the laboratory of the
Saint Anselm College Psychology Department. It was necessary for each participant
to dress appropriately in exercise clothing, or the clothing he or she
felt most comfortable to perspire in (sneakers were preferred). Prior to
the beginning of the experiment, each participant was asked to sign an
informed consent form (see Appendix A) and was told that if at any time
he or she felt dizzy or faint, to stop exercising. Also, before each participant
arrived, the CD was already in the portable CD player so the participant
would not notice the CD player (located behind the elliptical machine in
the corner). The music was then turned on and off by the investigator at
the beginning and end of each workout.
After the participants signed the informed
consent, the participants were asked to put on the polar heart rate monitor
underneath their shirt, beneath their chest bone (the experimenter left
the room until the polar heart rate monitor was on). Once they placed the
polar heart rate monitor on, the participant stepped on the elliptical
machine to start the exercise (this is when the CD would be turned on).
Each participant was expected to complete a twenty-minute workout. During
the twenty-minute workout, the experimenter was responsible to check for
heart rate and distance ran every minute. The reason for monitoring heart
rate and distance was to examine any differences or similarities noted
between the different types of music each the participant was listening
to.
Once each participant had completed the twenty
minutes of exercise (the experimenter would turn off the music at this
point), he or she was asked to complete the POMS mood scale, which examines
seven different subscales of moods (tension, depression, anger, vigor,
fatigue, confusion, and friendliness). After completing the POMS mood scale,
he or she was then asked to respond to the Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion
(see Appendix C). There were six questions added to the scale concerning
the music listened to during the workout. Specifically, the questions were
added to investigate if any participants were aware of the music or if
any participants perceived the music as enhancing the workout (see Appendix
C). Also, information was obtained to acknowledge how much regular exercise
each participant engages in. While completing both the POMS and Perceived
Exertion Scale, each participant sat at a desk in the laboratory room.
Once the participant finished answering both questionnaires, he or she
received a debriefing statement (see Appendix B) and was thanked by the
experimenter. |