Email: sgelinas@anselm.edu

I would like to mention three people, who were instrumental in my completion of this project my mom,

Professor Ossoff, and Professor McKenna. My mother and Professor Ossoff have been essential on the

academic end of the production of this. My mother helped me by volunteering to use her class time to

administer the questionnaires to her seventh graders. In addition, she also was a wonderful resource to

bounce ideas off of, and a fabulous proofreader. Professor Ossoff was incredibly efficient which in turn

led to her students having the opportunity to display the same level of efficiency in completing this

project. She was supportive and excellent in guiding us through this novel experience. Professor

McKenna was also helpful, enthusiastic, and positive especially in the beginning stages of my thesis.

Thank you!!

I would also like to thank my research assistant, Erin Dubovick. She was eager and helpful at the drop of

a hat. I wish her luck next year when tackling her own project.

Finally, I thank my friends who listened to my countless complaints and soothed my worries when I was

discouraged with this project. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank Andy, who is my support

through everything!

    The current literature has shown that the construct self-esteem is an integral part of the development of

a psychologically healthy and happy individual. A literature review on adolescent development was also

conducted for the current study. In addition to relevant information on adolescent development, social

interaction styles have been researched.

    The current study investigated two social interaction styles, self-monitoring and interpersonal

orientation, and their relationship with self-concept during adolescence. The study was also interested in

possible gender and developmental issues. It was hypothesized that high self-esteem scores would be

accompanied by low scores for the social interaction styles for both early and late adolescents. This study

consisted of 116 participants, 58 in the each developmental group, and utilized the Self-Monitoring Scale,

Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and Interpersonal Orientation Scale. Correlational and analysis of

variance procedures reveal significant findings in the data set concerning the divergence of the two

conceptual variables self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation. This is surprising because the literature

suggests that the two variables are conceptually similar. In addition to those findings, there was also

evidence of significant gender and developmental group differences. Females scored consistently higher

on the interpersonal orientation scale and males generally scored higher on the self-monitoring scale. The

early adolescent group had significantly lower scores for self-esteem than did the late adolescent group.

This finding is consistent with the literature on self-esteem. Possible applications of the findings of this

study concern the applying what is found about self-esteem to educational settings for adolescents. In

addition this study has implications for enhancing the adjustment and adaptation of adolescents.

Asynchrony  ***  Changing Cognitive Abilities  ***  Parent-Child Relationship  ***  Peer Group  *** Purpose of Current Investigation
 

Social interactions govern our everyday lives. The manner in which we interact with others can be greatly

influenced by our level of self-esteem. The question at issue for this research topic is the meaningful

relationship between an adolescent’s self-esteem and his/her social interaction style. This paper intends to

investigate the relationship between self-esteem and certain social interaction styles from the perspective

of early and late adolescence. The two particular social interaction styles under investigation for this

paper are self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation.

Self-esteem, as a general concept, has been defined by researchers as the individual’s global positive or

negative attitude toward self (Rosenberg, 1979; Coopersmith, 1987; Harter, 1990; Wigfield &

Karpathain,1991). A global attitude about the self refers to how one feels about him/her self in almost

any situation. Positive attitudes about oneself involve primarily self-liking; negative attitudes about oneself

include a poor self-concept and low self-efficacy. Poor self-concept can be understood as feelings of self

as insignificant, unsuccessful and unworthy (Coopersmith, 1987). Self-esteem develops principally

through the family and peer relationships (Eccles, Midgley, Wigfield, Miller, Buchanan, Reuman,

Flanagan & MacIver, 1993; Brown, Lohr & McClenahan,1986; Leahy, 1981; Newman & Newman,

1976). The importance of family and peer relationships is also closely connected to an individual's

self-monitoring style (Lord, 1994). Self-monitoring explains the level of awareness and attentiveness to

one’s social situation (Snyder, 1974; Snyder, Berscheid & Glick, 1985). This concept of self-monitoring

is further explored later in this paper.

Self-esteem is usually defined by the global, or general, evaluation one has of him/herself. The higher the

global rating of self in a positive regard, the higher the self-esteem. The lower the global rating of self in a

negative regard, the lower the self-esteem (Blythe, Simmons, Blueroft, Felt, Van Cleave, & Mitsch-Bush,

1981) Self-esteem is an expression of approval or disapproval of self. It indicates the extent to which one

views him/her self in positive terms (capable, worthy, significant) or negative terms (uncapable,

unworthy) (Coopersmith, 1987).

A study supporting the relevance of self-esteem during adolescence was conducted by Block & Robins

(1993). They noted the literature lacked a close examination of personality correlates to self-esteem

during adolescent development. Their study was designed to examine the relationship between

self-esteem and personality correlates. The relevance of their study in the current investigation lies in the

central importance of the conceptual variable, self-esteem as it related to adolescent development.

Significant differences between genders were also investigated by Block & Robbins (1993). They

postulated that different personality characteristics would be evident in males and females with high

self-esteem. The significant differences revealed justification for examining gender as an important

variable when examining self-esteem. This also provides support for the current study’s examination of

gender. The current study is interested in gender differences in self-esteem and the related social

interaction styles of adolescence. Block & Robins (1993) found that in males, self-esteem does not

change considerably over time, however, their level of self-esteem is consistently higher than females.

Females show a significant decrease in self-esteem over time from adolescence to adulthood. Along with

understanding the conceptualization of self-esteem it is important to understand the conceptualization of

the social interactions which are being examined in the present investigation.

Self-esteem can play a significant role in social relationships of the adolescent. For example, if an

adolescent has a low self-esteem he/she may perceive their involvement with others negatively, and thus

will be less likely to become involved with their peers or new social situations. An adolescent with a high

self-esteem is more likely to perceive their involvement with their peers positively and thus be more

social (Brown et. al 1986; Newman & Newman,1976).

Social relationships and interactions occur whenever one interacts with peers, family members, teachers,

and other adults. A person’s conceptualization or awareness of the social situation, how you think you

are expected to act, and how you do act, in order to be socially accepted, is referred to as self-monitoring

(Wong, 1988; Snyder et. al, 1985; Snyder, 1974). Self-monitoring is a concept which refers to the level

of awareness of how one is acting as well as the actions and reactions of relevant others around them.

Mark Snyder (1974), the pioneer on self-monitoring, maintains that people are either high self-monitors

or low self-monitors. High self-monitors are those who are particularly sensitive to the actions and

potential criticism of relevant others about their behavior. Low self-monitors are less sensitive to others’

actions, and do not moderate their actions as much for the social approval of those relevant others. This

is a pertinent concept to examine during adolescence due in part to the adolescent’s acute awareness of

the social environment and his/her developing self-concept as a function of his/her development. These

issues are explored further in the paper.

Another conceptualization highlighting the importance of social environment during adolescence can be

measured by the adolescent’s level of interpersonal orientation. Like self-monitoring, interpersonal

orientation also refers to the interaction between the individual and his/her social environment. This

construct highlights the salience of what is important to someone in his/her social environment (Swap &

Rubin, 1983). It examines how responsive to the interpersonal aspects of a situation a person is. Similar

to Snyder’s self-monitoring, this measurement also splits people into groups of either high or low levels of

interpersonal orientation. Those with scores that indicate a high level of interpersonal orientation are

extremely responsive to others and the social situations that they are in. Those with scores that indicate a

low level of interpersonal orientation are less responsive to others, and less sensitive to the social

situation. This measurement has been positively and modestly correlated with self-monitoring (Swap &

Rubin, 1983). The modest correlation is evidence of a slight overlap in construct with self-monitoring.

The interplay of one’s self-esteem and his/her self-monitoring style poses an interesting relationship

meriting investigation. This relationship may prove particularly interesting during adolescence.

Adolescence is the developmental stage following childhood and prior to adulthood (Kreipe, 1985). It is

during this developmental stage that the awareness of social situations and peer groups is heightened

(Brown et. al, 1986). During this period the adolescent’s primary concern is to become autonomous and

to achieve self-identity (Shain & Farber, 1989; Brown & Lohr, 1986; Kreipe, 1985). Self-identity and

autonomy are multifaceted tasks. Self-identity consists of the adolescent achieving a definitive notion of

the self, unlike anyone else, unique to himself or herself (Shain & Farber, 1989). Autonomy is the quest

for independence, the need to be free to make decisions on one's own (Brown & Lohr, 1987). There are

different theories as to how the adolescent reaches a self-identity and an autonomous relationship from

parents/caregivers. Concurrent with the navigation of new boundaries with parents/caregivers,

adolescents are also adapting to the changes that occur within their bodies. These changes make them

more focused on themselves as compared to others (Kreipe, 1985).

Physical changes are the most apparent sign that a child is going through adolescence. The onset of

secondary sex characteristics (breasts & hips for women; increased muscle tone & height for men) is an

explicit mark of early adolescence. The age which this occurs and how quickly the development proceeds

varies by individual and gender (Ellis & Davis, 1982; Kreipe, 1985). The physical development of the

adolescent serves as a social cue for appropriate interactions. If people perceive the physical development

of an adolescent to be childish, they will most likely treat the adolescent in a more child-like manner. If

the perception of the physical development of the adolescent is more adult-like, people will treat the

adolescent in a more adult-like manner (Blythe et. al 1981).

Asynchrony

Adolescents do not all develop at the same time, or in the same manner. The normal age range for the

onset of secondary sex characteristics and menarche for females occurs anywhere between 10 and 14

years of age. Male development is generally two years behind female, the physical changes occur

typically from 12 to 16 years old. The variation of the onset of secondary sex characteristics occurs in

males also. This differential onset of puberty is referred to as asynchrony (Blythe et. al, 1981; Ellis &

Davis, 1982). As stated above, their level of physical development can influence the treatment of early

adolescents. Since the age at which puberty begins is variable, some adolescents will be treated

differently due to their physical development. This differential treatment due to the asynchrony of

development is evidenced in studies that examine the social implications for early developers (before

those who are the same age) vs. late developers (after those of the same age) (Blythe et. al 1981).

Gender differences are found when comparing the social implications of being an early developer vs. a

late developer.

A study conducted by Blyth et. al (1981) found that males are generally better adjusted if they are early

developers and have more difficulties if a late developer. Early developers tend to be more popular, act

as leaders, achieve well academically, and experience higher levels of self-satisfaction. Late male

developers are generally found to be less popular, bullied, and have lower levels of self-satisfaction. Shain

& Farber (1989) found different results for females. Females experience the opposite trend, early

developing females experience more difficulty than their later developing counterparts. Early developing

females are exposed to more sexual tension, ostracization from friends, are less popular, and show lower

reports of self-satisfaction (Shain & Farber, 1989; Blythe et. al, 1981). The dramatic change in body

heightens all adolescents’ awareness of their body and self-image (Shain & Farber, 1989; Blyth et. al,

1981; Protinsky & Farrier, 1980). The adolescent's increase in awareness of his/her physical body results

in an increase in his/her awareness of the social setting. This indicates that body image and physical

development can have a serious impact on both the self-esteem of an adolescent and their level of

self-monitoring.

The increased awareness of self comes from the novelty of the changes taking place in the body. This

new attention on the body can effect the level of social comparison with others, because they have more

to compare. This quality of being aware of one’s body, particularly within the presence of others is

demonstrated in the adolescent's level of self-consciousness. A negative or positive body image can have

profound implications on the development of self-concept, self-esteem, self-consciousness, self-efficacy,

and self-identity (Shain & Farber, 1989; Blythe et. al, 1981). Perceptions of positive body images seem

to increase self-esteem, lower self-consciousness, increase self-confidence and self-efficacy (Harter,

1990; Shain & Farber, 1989; Blythe et. al, 1981; Protinsky & Farrier, 1980). One byproduct of the

awareness of body and social situation is evidenced in the presence of the imaginary audience (Kreipe,

1985). This is a type of thinking in which the adolescent believes that he/she is the center of everyone’s

attention. The construct of the imaginary audience is covered in more detail later in the paper.

It is important to look at differential developmental levels during adolescence because it can impact the

self-concept of the adolescent. The physical development of the adolescent becomes integrated as a part

of their self-concept (Blythe et. al 1981). If the body image is negative or positive due to the differential

developmental level, it can be reflected in the self-concept of the adolescent and also relates to the level

of self-monitoring in the adolescent. Self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation are constructs which

are founded in the notion of social sensitivity. Physical changes in the adolescent, particularly those that

are not in line with peers, lend itself to an increase in social sensitivity.

Self-monitoring becomes extremely relevant at this developmental stage as the adolescent becomes more

involved with the social interactions of peers. Self-consciousness and increased awareness of one’s self

within the social realm is newly important to the early adolescent due to the transfer of influence from the

parents to the peer group (Lord, 1994). Also, during this developmental period, the adolescent’s

self-esteem becomes a central factor as the adolescent encounters novel situations and different

interactions with peers. Each new situation can effect the way the adolescent views him/herself.

The intent of the current research is to analyze the interactions between self-esteem and social interaction

styles, such as self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation, during early and late adolescence. This

comparison of early and late adolescence may allow the observation of developmental trends of the

constructs of self-monitoring and self-esteem. In addition to looking at developmental trends, the present

study also intends to analyze if gender differences are present for the two constructs in question. In order

to better understand the concepts of self-esteem and self-monitoring and how they relate to adolescence,

it is imperative to look at relevant issues which adolescents face during this age period. Pertinent issues

include physical changes and the implications that accompany those changes, increased cognitive abilities

and the adolescent’s resulting changed perceptions, and the dynamic relationships between the adolescent

and their family, and their peer group.

When studying self-monitoring it is important to pay attention to relevant material concerning social

groups. One’s perception of his/her body image has implications for which peer groups they identify

themselves with (Brown & Lohr, 1987). Groups are often stereotyped for certain characteristics. In

Brown & Lohr's 1987 study we see the direct link between peer group and perception of body image.

They found five discrete crowds for adolescents: the populars, athletes, druggies/toughs, nobodies, and

normals. They support the notion that perception of one’s body is one factor that can influence which

group an adolescent feels most comfortable associating with.

Along with different physical dimensions, the adolescent also is developing and maturing cognitively. This

increase in cognitive ability transforms the adolescent's self-perception, as well as comprehension of

social situations. Both of those restructured cognitive abilities impact the self-esteem and self-monitoring

of the adolescent (Block & Robins, 1993).
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Changing Cognitive Abilities

Influential data concerning the cognitive capacities of children and adolescents have been compiled by

Jean Piaget (1969). He believed that the cognitive abilities along the developmental pathway of childhood

to adolescence change qualitatively. His cognitive theory on development postulates that adolescence is

signaled by the transition from concrete operational thinking to formal operational thinking. Concrete

operational thinking limits the person to thinking in a manner that is restricted to tangible objects and

concepts that are tangible. The adolescent’s cognitions mature with the ability to think abstractly.

Abstract thinking is the ability to think theoretically, without needing concrete objects to demonstrate an

idea. This ability significantly enhances the adolescent’s perception of his/her world. They can imagine

things, hypothetical situations, which previously would be incomprehensible to them because of cognitive

limitations. This enhanced cognitive ability widens the range and depth of the adolescent’s thinking

patterns. Identity acquirement occurspartly as a process of cognitive development. Developing an

identity requires certain cognitive capabilities to make sense of the adolescent’s personal experiences

(Lord, 1994). Part of one’s identity are his/her social interaction styles and self-esteem.

The development of self-concept is influenced by the fundamentally different cognitive processes of the

adolescent. Self-concept is the manner in which one understands him/her self (Wigfield & Karpathian,

1991). Adolescents often engage in egocentric thought, personal fable, and imaginary audience (Kreipe,

1985). Egocentric thoughts are cognitions that are self-centered; however, they are also appropriate for

reflection on self and self-exploration. Personal fable is the idea of immortality, or unrealistic immunity to

bad things that have an equal probability of happening to anyone ("I won’t get into a car accident"). The

imaginary audience is the perception that everyone is watching them, that the adolescent is on center

stage. These particular cognitive elements demonstrate the adolescent's deep introspection and focus on

self. This is important to consider with the current study because of the link between this and the

construct of the self in a social world. Although the adolescent has an acute interest with him/her self, as

was mentioned previously in this paper, they are also extremely aware of their social situations.

Self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation are concepts which are contingent upon the awareness of

one’s self in a social environment. Due to the development of both cognitive capabilities and social

awareness, self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation is directly connected with each variable.

In addition to the cognitive elements that impact the adolescent's self-concept and social awareness, the

relationship with parents also plays a crucial role in the development of self-esteem and social interaction

styles.
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Parent-Child Relationship

The impact of the parent-adolescent relationship has significant and lasting effects. The relationship the

adolescent has with his/her parents can either foster self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and a

positive self-image, or it can have the opposite effect, leading to a low self-image, poor self-esteem, poor

self-confidence and self-efficacy (Lord, 1994). Two of the goals of the adolescent are to move toward

autonomy and achieve a self-identity (Havinghurst, 1972). If the adolescent does not successfully

separate from the parents and is not in an environment conducive to achieving a self-identity, many

difficulties can ensue. Difficulties such as having a greater self-consciousness, lower self-confidence, and

greater image confusion (Lord, 1994; Leahy, 1981).

The interaction between the child and the parents undergoes a significant change from childhood to

adolescence. The adolescent’s struggle for independence and achievement of an identity, separate from

the family, is only successful if he/she can separate from the parents. This process is often termed

separation-individuation (Shain & Farber, 1989; Kreipe, 1985; Protinsky & Farrier, 1980). "When they

enter early adolescence, the rate of increase in this desire for control over one’s own life likely

accelerates, increasing the need for the family to renegotiate the power balance between parent and child"

(Eccles et. al 1993, p.178).

As already stated, the relationship between the parents and the adolescent goes through a crucial

transition. Theories on certain parenting styles are positively correlated to healthy adjustment of the

adolescent (Lord, 1994). A model which suggests that the parent and the adolescent can negotiate power,

control, and freedom to a level that is acceptable to both the parents and the adolescent is the "Stage

Environment Fit Model" (Lord, 1994). This model is used to highlight the importance of parenting in the

development of the adolescent. The data from the current study is not directly related to this model. This

model suggests that a variation of the freedom given for each adolescent is different. Each individual has

different levels of appropriate freedom and responsibility that they can manage, and it is the parents’ role

to understand what is appropriate for their child. The success or failure of the parent-adolescent

relationship aids or hinders the adolescent in navigating through other important relationships, such as the

relationships with peers (Lord, 1994). However, the separation from parents is not the only step toward

achieving their identity and becoming autonomous. The role of the peer relationship has a substantial

influence on the developing adolescent.
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Peer Group

The guidance and support typically given by the family is transferred to the peer group of the adolescent.

From childhood to adolescence, the peer group takes on an unprecedented influence in the early

adolescent’s life (Brown et. al, 1986). The affiliation with "groups," or "crowds," now plays a

quintessential role in the development of the adolescent (Dunphey, 1972). A study conducted by Brown

et. al, (1986) was interested in examining the strength of the peer relationship in four areas: peer

socializing, conformity, misconduct, and pro-adult behavior. They discovered that the peer group exerts

the most pressure in the socializing and pro-adult areas. The peer group is directly related to the

constructs of self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation. It is with the peer group where most

adolescents develop social interaction styles. Self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation styles are

developed primarily through interactions with peers. Also, they found that the influence of the peer group

was considerable and shaped the behavior and social experience of the adolescent. The adolescent’s

involvement with groups during the early stages of development can play a crucial role on their evolving

self-concept and self-esteem. Self-esteem effects many areas of development in the adolescent.

When examining self-esteem and its relationship to social interaction styles during adolescence, it is

important to understand the multi-faceted tasks the adolescent is dealing with. As reviewed, body image,

influences from the family and peers, cognitive changes are very influential in the development of

self-esteem and social interaction styles in the adolescent (Lord, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1994; Shain &

Farber, 1989; Brown et. al, 1987; Blythe et. al, 1981; Protinsky & Farrier, 1980).
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Purpose of Current Investigation

The purpose for this study is to explore the relationships between self-concept and social-monitoring

during early and late adolescence. The hypothesis for the current study states that adolescents with high

self-esteem may have a tendency toward lower self-monitoring and lower interpersonal orientation; and,

adolescents who have low self-esteem, may have a tendency to gravitate toward higher self-monitoring

and interpersonal orientation scores. This study is also interested in observing developmental trends, if

any, in the constructs of self-monitoring, interpersonal orientation, and self-esteem during adolescence. It

is hypothesized that there will be significant differences between early and late adolescents in their scores

on self-esteem, as a function of their developmental levels. The early adolescents should display lower

self-esteem scores than the older adolescents. Early adolescents should also obtain higher scores on the

self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation measures than late adolescents. In addition, this study is

exploring the possibility of gender differences in the manifestation of self-concept and social-monitoring

during the developmental stage of adolescence.

The method section is broken into three subsections:

  ****   Participants    ****    Instrumentation   ****   Procedure   ****

Participants

The participants consisted of 116 early and late adolescents. The 58 late adolescent participants had a

mean age of 18.29. There were 46 females and 12 males. They were students from a small liberal arts

Catholic college who received course credit for participating in this study. A regional Middle School from

western Massachusetts volunteered to be part of this research, the early adolescent group were students

of this school. They were in 7th grade with a mean age of 12.19, with 38 females and 20 males. Parental

consent was obtained for the 58 participants from the regional Middle School, along with their assent to

be a subject in this study.

Instrumentation

The Self-Esteem Inventory created by Coopersmith (1987) was used to assess the variable self-esteem in

both groups of early and late adolescents. (See Appendix A for the Self-Esteem Inventory). It contains 25

"Like Me/Unlike Me" statements. Statements included, "Things usually don’t bother me," "I find it very

hard to talk in front of a group," and "There are lots of things about myself I’d change if I could."

Research has shown the Coopersmith SEI to have good reliability (Bedeian, Geagud & Zmud, 1977;

Kimball, 1972). Obtained coefficients range from .71 to .92. Research has also shown the Coopersmith

SEI to have reasonable construct, concurrent and predictive validity (Simon & Simon, 1975; Kimball,

1972).

The Self-Monitoring Scale created by Mark Snyder (1974) was used to assess the variable

self-monitoring. (See Appendix B for the Self-Monitoring Scale). It assessed the levels of self-monitoring

in the early and late adolescents. This questionnaire consists of 18 statements that the participants were

to respond with either "True" or "False." Statements included, "I find it hard to imitate the behavior of

other people," and "I am not particularly good at making other people like me." A slightly modified

version of the original survey, (also presented in Appendix B), was administered to the early adolescent

group. Slight vocabulary alterations were made to increase comprehension of the items in the survey. For

example, "I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information"

was altered to read, "I can make spur-of-the-moment speeches even on topics about which I have almost

no information."

Reliability of this measure has been established in the field with coefficient alpha of .70 and higher

(Snyder & Gangestad, 1986). Extensive research has shown this instrument to have good validity

(Snyder & Gangestad, 1986).

The Interpersonal Orientation Scale, (Swap & Rubin, 1983) was used to assess interpersonal orientation

styles of the participants in the study. The questionnaire consists of 29 statements that the participant was

to rate following a Likert format of a 1-5 scale, with 1 representing statements that the participants

strongly disagree with, and 5 representing statements that the participants strongly agree with. Statements

included, "I am reluctant to talk about my personal life with people I do not know well," "I generally view

myself as a person who is not terribly interested in what other people are really like," and "Sometimes I

think I take things that other people say to me too personally." The Interpersonal Orientation Survey that

the early adolescents received were slightly modified from the original one, which was given to the late

adolescent group. This was done to increase the early adolescent group's understanding of the statements

that were on the survey. An example of this is the modified statement, "I often find myself wondering

what my teachers are really like" from the original statement, "I often find myself wondering what my

professors are really like." (See Appendix C for the original and slightly modified version of the

Interpersonal Orientation Survey). Reliability coefficients obtained for this instrument are in the high .70s

(Swap & Rubin, 1983). Concurrent and construct validity has been reported (Swap & Rubin, 1983).

Procedure

Before the three questionnaires were administered, the participants were given a brief statement

explaining the general purpose of their participation. (See Appendix D for a copy of the statement). The

statement also established that their participation was voluntary and they could refrain from answering

questions at any point during the administration of the questionnaires. For the early adolescent

participants, Parental Consent Forms were sent home and signed by parents/guardians before the

adolescents participated in the study. This form explained the purpose and hypothesis of the study. (See

Appendix E for a copy of the Parental Assent Form). In addition to the Parental Consent Form, a

Participant Assent Form was read and signed by the participants. This was a form stating that the

participant understands the nature of the questionnaires and agrees to be a participant in the study. (This

form can also be found in Appendix E).

The three questionnaires (Self-Monitoring Scale, Self-Esteem Inventory, and Interpersonal Orientation

Scale) were administered at the school in which the participants were students. The three questionnaires

were stapled together in random order and administered to both early and late adolescents in a group

setting. The late adolescents had approximately 14 participants in each group administration of the

questionnaires. The early adolescents were divided into two, close to equal groups, with approximately

28 participants in each group.

After the packet containing the three questionnaires were completed the participants were given a

debriefing form explaining in greater detail the hypothesis and purpose of the study. There was one

general debriefing form for both groups of adolescents. (See Appendix F for the Debriefing Form).

Participants were then thanked for their time and left.

 *****   Correlations  *****  ANOVAs  ******
 

The dependent measures for this study consist of the scores from the measures on the self-esteem

inventory (SEI), the self-monitoring scale (SM), and the interpersonal orientation scale (IO). The

independent variables in this study are age of respondents, early adolescents (younger) and late

adolescents (older) and gender.

The data from this study was analyzed through Pearson product moment correlation tests and a series of

2 (early adolescents and late adolescents) x 2 (male and female) analyses of variance (ANOVAs). The

2x2 ANOVA was performed for each of the three dependent variables (SM, SEI, IO).

Scores for all of the dependent variables (SEI, IO, SM) can result in either a high or low score. For the

SEI the highest possible score would be a 100 and the lowest possible score would be a zero. The highest

possible score for the SM scale would be a 36 and the lowest possible score would be an 18. The highest

possible score for the IO scale would be a 145 with a 29 as the lowest possible score.

Correlations

Pearson product moment correlation tests were run among the three dependent variables, IO, SM, and

SEI. The correlational analyses was run fpr the total number of subjects, and each subgroup. (See Table

1 for the results). A significant positive correlation (r = .22, p< .05) was discovered between SEI and SM

such that for all respondents, the more SE they had, the more they self-monitored. This finding is

contrary to what was hypothesized for this study. The expected finding stated that the more self-esteem a

person had, the lower they self-monitored. Pearson product moment correlations were also run among

the three dependent variables (SEI, SM, IO) within each group (early and late adolescents) and within

each gender (male and female). A significant negative correlation (r = -.35, p< .01) was found between

SEI and IO for the late adolescent group, later adolescents show increases in self-esteem with decreases

in IO. The increased self-esteem with lower IO scores is consistent with the general predicted relationship

between self-esteem and IO. No specific predicted relationship was made for the late adolescent group

concerning self-esteem and IO. There was also a significant positive correlation (r = .35, p< .01) for the

late adolescent group between SEI and SM, later adolescents show increases in SEI as SM increases.

This is in contrast to the predicted relationship between self-esteem and self-monitoring.

                                                --------------------------------------------

                                                ----------------------------------------------

Pearson product moment correlations were also run with more specific grouping variables. (See Table 2

for a table of the results of this analysis). The analysis was among the early and late male adolescents,

and the early and late female adolescents. A significant positive correlation (r = .34, p < .05) was

revealed for the late adolescent females between the variables of SM and SEI. This indicated that the

higher a score on SM the higher the score for SEI for late adolescent females. This is opposite of the

predicted relationship between those two variables. A near significant negative correlation (r = -.28, p <

.05) was discovered between the variables of IO and SEI for the females in the late adolescent group.

This indicates that the lower the IO score, the higher the SEI score. This finding is consistent with what

was predicted for those variables.

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ANOVAs

The ANOVA on the dependent variable self-esteem revealed a main effect for group, F (1,111) = 5.92, p

= 017. The early adolescent group (M = 66.8, Sd = 20.5) was lower in self-esteem than the late

adolescent group (M = 74.24, Sd = 16.39). This direction is consistent with the review of the literature

and the predictions stated in the hypothesis. This ANOVA also revealed a main effect for gender, F

(1,111) = 2.59, p = .110, that was not statistically significant, but was approaching significance in the

predicted direction. The predicted direction maintained that females would be lower in self-esteem than

males.

The ANOVA which analyzed the dependent variable IO revealed a main effect for gender, F (1, 109) =

19.39, p = .00. The females (M = 102.5, Sd = 9.6) were significantly higher than the males (M = 93.13,

Sd = 9.7) on this variable. In addition to this significant main effect, a main effect for group, F (1, 109) =

2.58, p = .111, was approaching significance. The means here indicate that the late adolescents (M =

102.69, Sd = 10.42) had higher IO scores than the early adolescents (M = 97.22, Sd = 9.85). There was

no specific prediction concerning IO between the early and late adolescent groups. A general prediction

of differences between the early and late adolescent groups was made. The prediction concerning the

differences between the two groups concerned self-esteem levels.

When the dependent variable SM was analyzed through the ANOVA a main effect for gender, F (1, 110)

= 6.3, p = .014, was discovered. The males (M = 28.58, Sd = 2.81) were significantly higher than the

females (M = 26.93, Sd = 3.10) on the measure for self-monitoring. In addition to the main effect with

gender, an interaction effect for gender and group, F (1, 110) = 3.54, p = .062, was approaching

significance. The means for both genders within each developmental group are displayed in Table 3. The

results reveal that the late adolescent females show a score for self-monitoring lower than any other

group. There was no specific prediction for gender and the dependent variable self-monitoring. Only a

general interest in exploring possible gender differences was proposed in the hypothesis.

This study has revealed significant results in different components of the hypothesis. The hypothesis of

this study postulated that adolescents with high self-esteem may have a tendency toward lower

self-monitoring and lower interpersonal orientation; and, adolescents who have low self-esteem, may

have a tendency to gravitate toward higher self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation scores. This

study was also interested in observing developmental trends, if any, in the constructs of self-monitoring,

interpersonal orientation, and self-esteem during adolescence. It was hypothesized that significant

differences between early and late adolescents would occur in the scores on self-esteem, with early

adolescents displaying lower self-esteem scores than the older adolescents. It was also hypothesized that

early adolescents would obtain higher scores on the self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation

measures than late adolescents. In addition, this study was exploring the possibility of gender differences

in the manifestation of self-concept and social-interaction styles during the developmental stage of

adolescence. The data analysis revealed a variety of significant results. This suggests that important

constructs were tapped into with this study. Each of the significant results found could lead to future

research in this field. This discussion will consist primarily of the results concerning the construct

divergence of self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation, gender issues, and differences between the

early and late adolescent groups.

As reviewed in the results section, there were two major statistical analysis conducted with the data. The

statistical analyses consisted of Pearson product moment correlational and analysis of variance. Each

classification of analyses unveiled significant findings.

The correlational analysis of the data revealed five interesting findings, four of which were significant.

Three of the significant correlations found were between the variables self-esteem and self-monitoring.

Each significant correlation found between self-esteem and self-monitoring was positive. The groups that

showed these positive correlations were the entire subject pool, the late adolescent group, and the late

adolescent female group. These results indicate that the more self-esteem an individual displayed the

more self-monitoring was displayed. This is contrary to the hypothesized relationship of this study which

stated that the more self-esteem the lower would be the tendency of self-monitoring.

The ANOVA run for self-monitoring revealed a main effect for gender, indicating that males had

significantly higher scores than females. Since there is a positive relationship between self-monitoring and

self-esteem, this relationship may be due to it’s connection to the high self-esteem scores males obtain.

This is interesting because although males show significantly higher self-monitoring scores than females

for the ANOVA, late adolescent females still had a significant correlation between self-monitoring and

self-esteem that the late adolescent males did not have. This issue may be due to the unequal number of

males and females in this study. The positive correlation for self-esteem and self-monitoring seems to

apply more to the males than the females. Females appear to have high self-monitoring scores but

without the high self-esteem scores.

To address the issue of gender, the female preponderance in these correlations may be due to the

socialization of females to be sensitive to the social situation. Females are expected to be more adept at

interpreting the social scene and respond with more sensitivity to social situations than males. The late

adolescent females are further along in their socialization, this may explain why the older adolescent

females were significantly correlated with high self-monitoring and the early adolescent females were not.

Another explanation accounting for the high self-esteem can be examined with the notion that the

person’s high self-esteem may be due, in part, to his/her ability to accurately interpret social situations

and know how to act within those situations. This ability can lead to an enhanced feeling of social

competence that contributes to his/her high self-esteem. A low self-monitor may not read a social

situation as accurately or know how to act as socially acceptable as the high self-monitor. He/she may

then feel more discouraged in social situations thus resulting in a lower self-esteem because they feel less

competent in social situations than a person who displays a high self-monitoring style. The stereotypical

gender-roles may negate the notion of a connection between high self-monitoring and self-esteem for

females. Stereotypes may be pervasive and detrimental enough, that although females are high in

self-monitoring, they do not credit themselves as males might which has a positive effect on self-esteem.

This conception of sex-typed roles is explored further in the discussion.

    Negative correlations were discovered between the variables self-esteem and interpersonal orientation.

This was evident for the late adolescent group, and a near significant correlation for the late adolescent

female group. Again, the late adolescent female group seems to be singled out when narrowing the

grouping variables for the correlation between self-esteem and interpersonal orientation. This negative

relationship suggests that the lower the interpersonal orientation score the higher the self-esteem score.

When further statistical analyses were conducted extended evidence supported this notion. In fact, a

significant relationship was found between females and the interpersonal orientation scale. The ANOVA

for interpersonal orientation revealed a main effect for gender. Females typically obtained higher

interpersonal orientation scores than males. Since this variable is negatively correlated with self-esteem, it

makes sense that the ANOVA conducted for self-esteem revealed that females were also found to have

scores approaching significance that indicated lower self-esteem scores than males.

    These results implicate two major issues. The first concerns gender differences in self-esteem, and the

second concerns construct divergence between self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation. The gender

issue will be investigated first followed by the construct divergence issue.

Considering the negative correlation between self-esteem and interpersonal orientation, the finding

suggesting that females score higher on interpersonal orientation scores than males is consistent with the

finding that females are lower on the self-esteem measure than males. The issue at hand is the gender

differences for self-esteem scores. Although the finding has not reached statistical significance, the close

proximity to significance merits further exploration of the topic. The findings that females have lower

self-esteem than males have been documented in the literature for years. This could be due to the social

inequality among genders. Males are generally viewed as more competent, independent, assertive,

confident, and logical. Females are stereotypically perceived as gentle, quiet, dependent, emotional, and

passive. These traditional sex-typed roles do not engender females to enhance their self-esteem. The

current study's finding may be reminders of the effect of traditional sex-role stereotypes present in the

population used for this study. An important note, the fact the finding was not statistically significant may

imply that the sex-role stereotypes which negatively impact the females self-esteem are not as strong as

previous years. This indicates that the highly sex-typed gender roles may be filtering out of mainstream

conception of gender roles.

Previous literature has found self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation to be moderately correlated

which suggests an overlap in the constructs (Swap & Rubin, 1983). These findings, however, are not

consistent with what the literature suggests. In fact, the data from the current study finds that

interpersonal orientation and self-monitoring are not significantly correlated to each other. In addition,

when one of the variables is significantly correlated with self-esteem the other variable is significantly

correlated in the opposite direction. This is evidenced in the positive correlations of self-monitoring and

self-esteem and the negative correlations of interpersonal orientation and self-esteem. This is the first

indication of construct divergence between self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation. These results

imply that the two variables are not as closely related constructs as the literature suggests. Perhaps the

two instruments are measuring fundamentally different constructs, which is why there isn’t a relationship

found between the two variables. Another suggestion is that the two instruments aren’t accurately

measuring the conceptually similar construct they are intended to measure. Therefore, the instruments

are not as valid as previously suggested.

    Two significant relationships worthy of further exploration occur between the early and late

adolescents. The early adolescents show significantly lower self-esteem scores than the late adolescents,

and the late adolescents show significantly higher interpersonal orientation scores than the early

adolescents. The statistical analysis employed that revealed these findings was the ANOVA, run for the

dependent variables self-esteem and interpersonal orientation.

    The finding that early adolescents obtained lower self-esteem scores than late adolescents supported

the hypothesis. Early adolescents are facing many new changes perhaps a byproduct of these

developmental changes is a lowered self-esteem. These suggestions could lead to future research on

self-esteem during periods when people are facing developmental changes through the life span. It would

be interesting to discover if self-esteem is typically lower during time frames when people undergo major

challenges and developmental issues. This idea could be investigated during later developmental ages than

adolescence, such as early, middle, and late adulthood. Another explanation for the lower self-esteem

during early adolescence could be that the adolescent’s self-esteem is not yet established. Once the

self-esteem construct is established, perhaps by late adolescence, it remains stable throughout one’s life

span. If this were the case, then the idea that self-esteem would be lower during different developmental

stages would be falsified. This exploration into the stability of self-esteem can lead to a greater

understanding of the development of this important construct.

    One explanation offered which speaks to the finding that the late adolescents obtained scores which

were approaching statistically significance toward higher interpersonal orientation than early adolescents

may be due to developmental issues. Perhaps the early adolescent group is more focused on their own

development and changes and therefore are less aware of interpersonal relationships. Or, they are aware

of the interpersonal relationships but must deal with their own developmental issues first. It is interesting

to note that interpersonal orientation variable is not consistently negatively related to self-esteem. For

example, the females are high in interpersonal orientation and low in self-esteem. This is consistent with

the negative correlation found between the two variables. The early adolescents are low in self-esteem

and high in interpersonal orientation. This inconsistency could be due to questionable validity of the

instrument. The validity of the instrument was already called into question with the construct divergence

between self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation.

    In addition to analyzing the results from the current study it is important to review and critique the

methodology of the study. In doing so, suggestions are made that improve this study for future studies.

Evaluating the methodology of this study brings to light issues that could improve the current study.

Slight alterations made involving the participants and instruments would increase the methodological

strength of this study. These suggestions give direction for future research in this area. In addition to

changes that need to be made, methodological strengths of the study are highlighted.

    Two issues exist concerning the participants of this study. The first is related to the attempt to examine

gender differences and similarities. To more accurately analyze gender differences, an equal number of

male and female participants would increase the strength of the statistical analysis run evaluating these

differences. This study consisted of 32 males and 84 females. In addition to the uneven number of male

and female participants, the conclusions from this study can only generalize to a specific population. This

is the second issue of concern with the participants. The participants were representative of a population

of white, middle-class, Christians from a suburban, New England area. However, the overall number of

participants proved to be a strength in this study. It was large enough to render significant statistical

conclusions about the issues being examined.

    Two issues concerning the instrumentation need to be addressed. The first concerns the

appropriateness of the instruments for the early adolescents. Each instrument was initially developed for

an adult population. To account for the different levels of comprehension for the items, the early

adolescents were administered a modified version of the instruments. However, the modified version is

not one that is has been appropriately tested in the field. The Coopersmith SEI does have a version of the

SEI for children, for 10-12 year olds but this version was not used in this study. The second issue

concerns the Coopersmith SEI. It can also be argued that better instruments for measuring self-esteem

are available. Despite these possible problems with the instruments, all of the instruments used are well

established within the realm of social psychology.

Conclusion

This study is complete with a number of significant results. As the implications of the results have already

been presented, certain applications to the results of this study are presented. Self-esteem plays a major

role in the development of psychologically healthy and happy individuals. Studies that contribute to the

understanding of self-esteem can be utilized to increase people’s self-esteem. An instrumental way of

applying findings on self-esteem for children is to find methods to work within the school system.

Educational programs and the schools have considerable impact in our society. Schools can be used as

vehicles to implement programs to aid in awareness of issues and make changes in our society. As a

result of the finding that females are still showing signs of lower self-esteem schools, perhaps with middle

schools and junior high schools as targets, can work to enhance the self-esteem of females. As a method

of doing so, they may attempt to become more gender neutral in their philosophy and encourage similar

achievements for both genders.

    If it is found that by a particular developmental period self-esteem is established and stable, it would

be important to help modify those with self-esteem problems before it becomes a stable aspect of their

character. This may include self-esteem testing in schools, and consequently involving students with low

self-esteem into programs designed to enhance their self-esteem before it becomes an enduring issue.

This study contributes to the field concerning social interactions. Social interactions occur in many

different important relationships we have. For example, dating, parent-child, employer-employee, peer,

sibling are all significant relationships that apply to nearly everyone. If a greater understanding of

particular social interaction styles are discovered then the relationships people have can be enhanced due

to the increased understanding of social interaction styles. If one is aware of their particular

self-monitoring and interpersonal orientation styles, and also aware of when their style may not be

working, then they may be able to identify when their style may not be adaptive and adjust accordingly.

    This study applies to a very basic and important issues, the social interaction people have and their

self-concept. These variables are central to human nature and are worthy of immense amounts of

investigation. The current study contributes to a small portion of the understanding of self-concept and

social interaction styles.

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