Web Gallery

Week 10: Thursday, March 31

Linguistic Map of Europe (1914)

Artifacts from the Era of Popular Nationalism

Marianne, the national symbol of France, appears on this gold twenty-franc piece produced in 1905. She wears the Phrygian cap associated with liberty along with a laurel of oak leaves. On the reverse side of the coin appears the French cock, a symbol associated with the ancient Gauls of pre-Roman France. Notice the motto, "Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite."

Marianne appears again in a postage stamp issued shortly before World War I. Here she sows wheat in an open field as the sun beguns to rise on the horizon.

Construction on "Germania," a statue representing united Germany, began on the Niederwald overlooking the Rhine River in 1877. Completed in 1883 and dedicated by William II, it required 32 tons of bronze to build.

Here is a closer view of the statue of "Germania," taken from a German postcard around 1900. How does she differ from Marianne?

National Art in Hungary

Mór Than, "The Battle of Mohács" (1855): Than (1828-1899) accompanied the Hungarian army during the Revolution of 1848. He initially studied painting at Pest in Hungary before pursuing his studies in Vienna, Paris, and Italy. Although he lived in Hungary for long spells, he traveled and exhibited abroad frequently. Shortly before his death, he became the director of the Hungarian National Gallery. This work represents the Battle of Mohács (1526) in which an outnumbered Hungarian army under King Louis II suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of a Turkish force under Suleiman the Magnificent. While attempting to escape, Louis II died trying to cross a river. With its king dead and army destroyed, Hungary ceased to be an independent kingdom. The Turks seized half of Hungary while the Habsburgs took over the remainder. Notice the manner in which Than contrasts the dynamism and fury of battle in the background with the peace of death in the foreground. Notice also the patch of light in the otherwise darkened foreground that illuminates Louis II's body and the half-submerged Hungarian banner.

Bertalan Székely, "The Discovery of the Body of King Louis II" (1860): Székely (1835-1910) studied in Vienna and Munich before returning to Hungary. Later in life, he became a noted muralist. This painting shows Hungarian nobles discovering Louis II's body in a shallow grave after the terrible disaster at Mohács. Compare this painting with Than's work above. How do the moods, colors, and compositions of the works differ?

Gyula Benczúr "Buda Castle Recaptured" (1896): Benczúr (1844-1920) learned painting in Bavaria and taught art in Munich. He returned to Hungary in 1883 to teach at the Master's School of Painting. One of the most prominent Hungarian painters in the late nineteenth century (he won a number of medals in international competitions), he accepted many commissions from the church and the Hungarian government. This work represents the recapture of Buda in 1686 by a combined army of Austrians and Hungarians. In the course of the fighting, the last Turkish pasha of Buda met his death. Here the Austrian and their Hungarian allies enter the main gate of the city walls. Notice the priest at left center waving the crucifix at the Turkish prisoners headed out the gate. Meanwhile, Charles of Lorraine (a Habsburg prince) sits proudly astride his horse. The recapture of Buda effectively brought an end to Turkish control of Hungary. How does this work represent the benefits of Austrian and Hungarian cooperation in bringing civilization back to the Balkans?

Mór Than, "The Age of Széchenyi and Deák" (1875): Count Istvan Széchenyi (1791-1860), in the center of this painting, founded the Hungarian Academy of the Sciences which played a leading role in seeking to improve and liberalize Hungary. In his lap sits a plan for the famous chain bridge he helped build across the Danube, linking Buda and Pest to form a united capital city (known today as Budapest). Interestingly enough, Széchenyi grew increasingly disenchanted with Hungarian nationalism and committed suicide. Ferenc Deák (1803-1876), on the right, had opposed Hungarian independence in 1849. The defeat of the Hungarian revolution in 1849 appeared to confirm his judgment, and he became one of the most prominent Hungarian politicians of the period. Deák favored continuing the association with Austria, but insisted on the restoration of the Hungarian constitution of 1848 and consistently sought to obtain more autonomy for Hungary. In 1867, he helped negotiate the Ausgleich with Austria. This is obviously a symbolic painting, but what exactly does it symbolize? What idea did Than wish to convey through this painting?

Bertalan Székely, "The Women of Eger" (1867): As the see of an archbishopric and the location of a well-sited, powerful castle, Eger was a Hungarian town of some importance. In 1552, Eger's Hungarian garrison of 2,000 men and women under István Dobó found itself besieged by around 40,000 Turks. After a month of fighting, the Hungarians outlasted the Turks who retreated. Eger became a great symbol of Hungarian heroism in the face of overwhelming odds. This painting recounts an incident from the siege. Notice the woman in the center of the painting. She holds the arm of a dying Hungarian soldier with her left hand while wielding his sword with the other. To the right, two women prepare to dump a basket of rocks on the Turks scaling the castle walls. Why do you think Székely chose to use the women of Eger as a subject for this painting?

Sándor Wagner, "Titusz Dugovics Sacrifices Himself" (1859): After studying in Vienna, Wagner (1838-1919) taught and painted in Munich. Here, Wagner represents an incident from the siege of Belgrade. Having just captured Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II proceeded northward and threatened the city of Belgrade. Hungary sent a force of 10,000 soldiers under Janos Hunyadi to assist the Serb garrison of 5,000 men. The Turks besieged the city in 1456, subjecting it to a terrible artillery bombardment before launching a furious assault that lasted an entire night. As one of the Turks sought to erect a horse-hair banner on the city walls as a symbol of victory, Titusz Dugovics, in an act of suicidal heroism, hurled himself at the Turk, sending them both off the city wall. Through the use of burning oil, the garrison eventually forced the Turks to giv up and retreat. Belgrade remained Christian for another 70 years.

Peter Krafft, "The Attack of Zrinyi" (1825): Krafft (1780-1856) studied with David in Paris. This painting represents yet another heroic struggle against the Turks. In 1556, Zrinyi, the Ban of Croatia, sought to defend the Hungarian fortress of Szigetvár with 2,500 men against an invading Turkish army of some 90,000. Zrinyi hoped to obtain help from the Habsburgs, but they thought Szigetvár indefensible and prepared instead to defend Vienna. Realizing he could not rely on any assistance, Zrinyi and his soldiers pledged to fight to the death and take their families with them. Szigetvár sat in the middle of a marshy river, so the only way the Turks could get access to the town walls was by building a number of causeways. After heavy fighting, the Turks managed to reach the walls and capture the town, but they could not crack the fortress. Nevertheless, the garrison understood it was doomed, so Zrinyi and his men prepared for a final showdown with the Turks. First, they bade farewell to their wives and families before killing them to prevent them from falling into Turkish hands. Next, they took off their armor and mounted their horses. Then, ordering the fortress gate opened, Zrinyi and his men rode straight into the Turks on the main causeway—and right into certain death. Every single one of the Hungarian defenders perished. Over the course of the siege, some 25,000 Turks lost their lives. The conquest of of Szigetvár proved so arduous that Suleiman the Magnificent, the Turkish sultan, suffered a stroke and died. This painting represents the final charge of Zrinri and his men.

Bertalan Székely, "Zrinyi's Charge from the Fortress of Szigetvár" (1879-85): How does this representation of Zrinyi's charge differ from Krafft's? How does the intended message differ?