Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms
General Biology BI 04 Summer School Lecture Notes
Viruses - non-living
Characteristics
Made up of fragments of a genome, strands of nucleic acid encased in protein coats
Possess only one form of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA depending on the virus type
Cannot grow or replicate without a host
Replicate only utilizing host cell`s machinery
Ecology
Important due to disease producing potential
Could never have existed independently as preexisting organisms
Viruses are often highly host-specific, reproduce only within a certain host
Mode of action
Transmit nucleic acid component from one host cell to another
Nucleic acid takes over host cell and produces more viruses
Virulent viruses cause host cell to lyse and release new virus particles
Temperate viruses become established in genome of host cell
5 Kingdom System
Monera (Prokaryotes, give rise to the Eukaryotes, probably through endosymbiosis)
Protista (Eukaryotes, give rise to the 3 higher Kingdoms)
Protozoans
Algae
Fungal-like Protistans
Fungi (Eukaryotes)
Plantae (Eukaryotes)
Animalia (Eukaryotes)
3 Domain System: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Prokaryotes have been split into 2 Domains
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryotes are together in a single Domain
Eukarya
Number of kingdoms has not been resolved
Bacteria present a problem with their diversity
Protista present a problem with their diversity
Archaea
many species found in extreme environments
thermoacidophiles - hot springs
halophiles - salt lakes, deep sea hydrothermal vents, involved in decomposition
methanogens - swamps, marshes (die in the presence of oxygen), decomposers
found in the gut of some animals, used to make methane from garbage
Bacteria
Characteristics of most species
cell wall made up of peptioglycan (sugar and proteins), gram + or -
flagella in some species
no membrane-bound organelles
genome - sinlge strand of DNA and maybe circular DNA (plasmid)
reproduction by binary fission
some species produce endospores to survive in harsh environments
small size
Metabolism and Ecology - aerobic and anaerobic
autotrophs
photosynthetic - derive energy from photosynthesis
chemosynthetic - derive energy from oxidation of inorganic compounds (hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, etc...)
heterotrophs
saprobes - decomposers
parasites
TB, STD's (Gonorrhea, Syphillis, Chlamydia) , Lyme Disease, tooth decay and halitosis
nitrogen metabolism - processing of nitrogen
nitrogen fixation - converts nitrogen gas directly from nitrogen in the atmosphere into ammonium that can be used by plants or by the bacteria themselves (cyanobacteria with heterocyst)
Oxygen and prokaryotic metabolism
obligate aerobes - must have oxygen for cellular respiration
facultative anaerobes - will use oxygen in respiration when it is available but can also use fermentation to produce energy for their cells
obligate anaerobe - only use fermentation, oxygen is poisonous
Major forms
bacilli
cocci
spirilli
Gram + bacteria - cell wall is composed almost entirely of peptidoglycan
Gram - bacteria - cell wall is composed of an outer membrance with peptidoglycan
5 Major Groups of Bacteria
Proteobacteria (gram - bacteria)
broad diversity of species and ecologies
many species are symbiotic (parasites or mutualists)
some photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs
Chlamydia
parasites (use ATP from host cell)
Spriochetes
some free-living and some parasitic forms (Lyme Disease)
Gram + bacteria (includes some gram - bacteria)
broad diversity of species and ecologies
fungus-like bacteria
parasites - tuberculosis and leprosy
free-living in soil - decomposers and some species used to make antibiotics
spore-forming bacteria - causes botulism, other diseases (staph and strep throat infections)
mycoplasmas - only bacteria that lack cell wall
free-living in soil
pathogens - walking pneumonia
Cyanobacteria - blue-green algae
photosynthetic autotrophs
Putting prokaryotes to work
sewage treatment
bacteria used to clean up oil spills
make yogurt, acetic acid, vinegar
used in recombinant DNA experiments
Protista (first Eukaryotes)
Morphological Characteristics - general
nucleus with nuclear membrane
many chromosomes
some photosynthetic forms, heterotrophic forms (ingestion and exeternal absorption), aerobic metabolism,
mostly unicellular, some multicellular forms (see Algae)
larger size than Prokaryotes
capable of sexual reproduction
may be an artifical grouping because the diversity of species, under further study
Nutrition
Heterotrophs with aerobic metabolism
Photoautrophs - photosynthesis
Mixotrophs - combine photosynthesis with heterotrophic nutrition
Reproduction
asexual
sexual
Habitats
freshwater
marine
damp terrestrial environments
mutualists and parasites live in animal or plant host's tissues
Major types of protists
Protozoans: animal-like protistans
Algae: plant-like protistans
Cellular slime molds: fungal-like protistans
Evolutionary origin
infolding of the cell membranes
endosymbiosis
Major Groups
Diplomonadida - lack mitochondria
multiple flagella, two nuclei, simple cytoskeleton
example - Giardia (beaver fever)
Parabasalids - lack mitochondria
flagella and undulating membrane
example - trichomonads, infects human vaginal lining if the normal pH is disturbed
Euglenozoa
flagella, photosynthetic and heterotrophic
example - Euglenoids
example - Trypanosoma responsible for African sleeping sickness
Alveolata
have small, membrane-bound cavities under the cell surface - alveoli
Dinoflagellata - Dinoflagellates
photosynthetic pigments - xanthochlorophyll a and c along with carotenoids
mostly marine, symbionts in animals (corals)
blooms responsible for red tides
bioluminescent forms
Apicomplexans - parasites
Plasmodium causes malaria, infects liver and red blood cells (lyses rbcs and releases toxins)
Ciliophora - Ciliates
unicellular with cilia covering entire cell, micro- and macronuclei
sexual reproduction involves conjugation, micronucleus undergoes meiosis, cells exchange haploid micronuclei which fuse to form a diploid micronucleus
Stramenopila
Oomycota -the Water Molds and Mildews
named after large eggs that forms after fertilization
Niche - parasites (cause of potato blight and famine in Ireland) and some saprophytic forms
Bacillariophyta - Diatoms
Chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, contain silica based shells, used to make filters (diatomaceous earth)
fresh and salt water
Chrysophyta - golden algae
flagella, carotenoids and xanthophyll
primarily freshwater
Phaeophyta - Brown Algae
chlorophyll a and c chloroplasts
marine, brown color, air bladder in many species
Examples
large kelps
chlorophyll a and phycobilins, capable of living at greater depths and capturing light for photosynthesis
marine - warm waters
Chlorophyta - Green Algae
ancestor of higher plants, contain chlorophyll a and b
marine, freshwater and terrestrial forms, includes algae in lichens
Pseudopod - using Protists
Rhizopoda - amoebae
move using pseudopods, feed via phagocytosis
free-living and parasitic forms (amoebic dysentery)
Foraminifera - forams
covered by porous shells = tests, podia are cyptoplasmic extensions through pores used for swimming and gathering food
heterotrophic marine forms
Actinopoda - Radiolaria
possess pseudopods - ray feet
marine
Mycetozoa - slime molds
Dictyostelida - the Cellular Slime Molds
act like amoebae, can fuse together
Niche - fresh water, damp soil, rotting vegetation
Myxogastrida - the Plasmodial Slime Molds
act like a large amoeba composed of many cells that lack membranes
Niche - eat bacteria and organic matter, found in wet forest floors
Evolution of multicellularity
Volvocine line of evolution
unicellular - loose aggregations - colonies - colonies with division of labor and differentiation of cells - true multicellular organisms
Plantae
Characteristics
Multicellular eukaryotes, cellulose in cell wall, starch storage, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll a, b, carotenoids and others
cuticle to protect against microbes and prevent dessication
vascular tissue in the higher groups (internal transport)
Life cycle - alternation of generations (gametophyte and sporophyte)
gametophyte - 1n (haploid), dominant generation in lower plants, produces haploid gametes which fuse to form the sporophyte
sporophyte - 2n (diploid), dominant generation in higher plants, undergoes meiosis to form spores or gametes
sporangium - spore producing organ, site of meiosis
Important trends in plant evolution and colonization of land
Reproduction
flagellated sperm - wind borne pollen
move from spores to seeds to fleshy coverings on seeds
sporophyte becomes dominant phase of the life cylce in higher plants
Vascular tissue
evolution of xylem and phloem for conducting materials through the plant
Morphological advances
evolution of roots in higher plants
development of true leaves
Major groups
Charophycea - oldest and most primitive group of higher plants
algal group closely related to the green algae
Bryophytes and their allies
Major groups
liverworts and mosses
Tracheolphyta (vascular plants)
Major groups
seedless palnts
ferns and their allies
seed plants
gymnosperms, angiosperms
Bryophytes (hornworts, liverworts and mosses)
Major Phyletic Groups
Bryophyta - mosses
Hepatpphyta - liverworts
Anthocerophyta - hornworts
Ecology
moist habitats of temperate, tropical forests and tundra, require water for sexual reproduction and flagellated sperm
Life Cycle
Morphology
male gametophyte, possesses antheridia, produce sperm
female gametophyte, possesses archegonia, produce eggs
sporophyte grows off the top of the female gametophyte, nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte, undergoes meiosis to produce spores that give rise to new male or female gametophytes
Liverworts possess leafy thallus with cupules, cupules contain 1n gemmae that can reproduce asexually
Mosses possess leaves and stems and conducting tissues similar to higher plants, may be related to ancestor of higher plants
Vascular Plants - Tracheophyta
Ecology
occupy all terrestrial environments
Morphological characteristics
vascular tissue - xylem and phloem, true leaves
sporophyte - dominant stage in life history
Major groups
Pteridophytes: non-seed plants: four living and three extinct phyla
Pterophyta - ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails
Lycophyta - club mosses
responsible for the coal forests during the Carboniferous period (290 - 360 mya) that formed our fossil fuels
Seed Plants
Gymnosperms - conifers and their allies
Angiosperms - flowering plants
Monocots - vascular (xylem and phloem) bundles scattered throughout the stem, one cotyledon or seed leaf
Dicots - vascular (xylem and phloem) bundles restricted to the periphery of the stem, two cotyledons or seed leaves
Pterophyta - ferns
vascular tissue, roots, stems, rhizomes, fronds and leaves
life cycle
flagellated sperm, require water and moist environment
small gametophyte - prothalium contains archegonia and antheridia
sorus on the underside of the leaf - contains sporangium, meiosis produces 1N spores, released and grow into new prothalia
Seed Plants
Evolutionary advances
Reproductive structures
Male - microsporangium produces pollen
Female - megasporangium contains ovule = egg
Seed - protective, resistant outer coat contains integuments, contains embryo and food
Reproduction - wind and animal pollination, enables plants to perform long-distance fertilization
Dispersal - wind and animal
Gymnosperms - conifers and their allies
distributed throughout the world except tundra
naked seed - no fruit
gametophytes are very small, develop within the sporophyte
Major groups: conifers, cycads, ginkgoes and gnetophytes
Conifers
life cycle
needle leaves, stay on the plant year round
male(pollen cone) and female (ovulate cone) cones for reproduction
wind-borne pollen and pollination
egg - megaspore produced in megasprophyll
sperm/pollen - microspore produced in microsporophyll
Applications
Pacific Yew used to produce taxol for treatment of ovarian cancer
Pine - building materials
Juniper berry extract for gin flavoring
Douglas Fir used for building, railroad ties, plywood
Angiosperms
Evolutionary Advances
Refinement of xylem - tracheids for support and vessel elements that are highly specialized for water transport
Flower
Fruit
distributed throughout the world
Major groups
Monocots - one seed leaf
Dicots - two seed leaves
life cycle
reproductive structures - flowers
male - stamen composed of anther and filament
female - pistil composed of stigma, style, ovary
sepals - support base of the flower
petals - surround the flower
pollen - windborne and carried by pollinators drawn to flower by nectar and color
double process of fertilization: first sperm fertilizes egg, second sperm fertilizes polar nuclei, develops into endosperm, serves nutritive function, food suppy for developing embryo
ovary develops into fruit
Leaves with veins
upper epidermis, palisade layer, spongy mesophyll (important site of gas exchange inside the leaf), lower epidermis, stomata (stoma and guard cells, control gas exchange with the atmosphere)
Types of fruits
pomme - apple
dry - dandelion
leguminous - peanut and peas
fleshy - cherry, tomato
Applications
Agriculture - vegetables and fruits
Medicine - drugs
Timber and building materials, furniture
Fungi
Characteristics
hyphae and mycelium, heterotropic - extracellular digestion using exoenzymes and absorption
hyphae made up of cells separated by septae (porous and allow movement of cyptoplasm and nuclei), some species are coenocytic (lack septae, composed of one large cyptoplasm)
haustoria - specialized hyphae of parasitic species that penetrate tissue of the host species
cell wall composed of polysaccharide and chitin
reproductive spores - produced by meiosis or mitosis with specialized dispersal mechanisms
Ecological Roles
Decomposers
Parasites
Mutualistic symbionts
Major groups (defined by modes of reproduction)
Chitridiomycota - most primitive group
mainly aquatic, non-parasitic forms (saprobes) and parastic forms, parasites may be responsible for global decline in amphibians
most primitive group, only Fungi with flagella
Zygomycota -mostly terrestrial, found close to plants, live in soil on decaying plant matter, other - bread molds
hyphae - asexual with sporangium
hyphae - sexual, fuse together and forms haploid zygospore around zygote, undergoes meiosis and releases haploid spores
Ecology
Mutualistic symbionts mycorrhizae - mutualistic forms with plants (exchange minerals)
most species live in the soil, saprobes of decaying plant vegetation
Ascomycota - freshwater and terrestrial forms, some yeast and their allies
sexual reproduction - reproductive sac - haploid ascus surrounds diploid zygote
asxual reproduction - using conidiospores, produced by specialized hyphae = conidiophores
many asci together form large cup-like ascocarp
mycorrhizae - mutualistic forms with plants (exchange minerals)
Ecology
marine, freshwater, terrestrial forms
mutualistic symbionts with algae to form lichens and mycorrhizae
Basidiomycota - club fungi
reproductive structure - basidiocarp with gills, gills lined with basidia
sexual reproduction occurs within basidia that undergoes meiosis make basidiospores
Ecology
decomposers/saprobes involved in decaying wood and other forest vegetation
Deuteromycetes or Fungi imperfecti - unusual group
asexual reproduction
many species are human and plant parasites
penicillium also used to produce penicillin, also includes some yeast species
Interesting Associations with other species
Lichens - some species form mutualistic relationship with algae to form lichens
Mycorrhizae - form associations with plant roots (endo and ecto), transfer nutrients in soil to plants in exchange for organic molecules
Other benefits - prevents uptake of toxic metals, protect against acid rain, resist cold and drought, increase crop yield
Animalia
Origin
Characteristics
multicellular, heterotrophs, nervous tissue, glycogen is form of starch storage
major groups differ in their embryonic development
Major Groups - based on traditional model (morphology and development)
Parazoa - no true tissues
Porifera
Eumetazoa - true tissues,
Germ Layer Tissues/System ectoderm forms coverings of body and nervous system endoderm digestive organs and intestines mesoderm skeleton and muscles Radiata - radially symmetric organisms
Cnidaria
Bilateria - bilaterally symmetric organisms
Acoelomates
Platyhelminthes
Pseudocoelomates
Nematoda
Coelomates
Schizocoelomates - Protostomes
Mollusca
Annelida
Athropoda
Enterocoelomates - Deuterostomates
Echinodermata
Chordata
Major Groups - based on biochemical systematics
Parazoa - no true tissues
Porifera
Eumetazoa - true tissues
Germ Layer Tissues/System ectoderm forms coverings of body and nervous system endoderm digestive organs and intestines mesoderm skeleton and muscles Radiata - radially symmetric organisms
Cnidaria
Bilateria - bilaterally symmetric organisms
Protostomes - Lophotrochozoa
Platyhelminthes
Mollusca
Annelida
Protostomes - Ecdysozoa
Nematoda
Athropoda
Deuterostomes
Echinodermata
Chordata
Trends
Colonization of land (primitive groups - marine, advanced groups - terrestrial)
Unsegmented - segmented
Simple tube - complex tube with accessory glands
cold-blooded - warm-blooded
cephalization
Porifera - sponges
Ecology
marine and freshwater
filter-feeders
Characteristics - morphology
spicules - supporting structures
single opening to body cavity (spongocoel)- osculum
pores along body wall where water and food enters
Choanocytes - flagellated collar cells move water through body
Amoebocytes - transport nutrients
mesoglea - nerve net (loose network of individual nerve cells)
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Porifera
Radiata
Cnidaria
Characteristics
contain cnidocytes - stinging cells
most species have sedentary polyp stage (asexual) and mobile medusa stage (sexual)
life cycle
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Cnidaria
Ecology
mostly marine, some freshwater forms
Major groups
Hydrozoa - hydras
polyp stage dominant over medusa
Scyphozoa - jellyfish
medusa stage dominant over polyp
Anthozoa - corals, sea anemones
polyp stage only
Bilateria - Protostomes - Lophotrochozoa
Platyhelminthes - flatworms, acoelomates
Turbellaria - Planaria, free-living forms, mostly marine and carnivorous
two eye-spots, mouth and pharynx, gastrovascular cavity, nerve net with ganglia, flame cells for maintaining salt and water balance
Trematoda - liver and blood flukes - parasitic
Cestoda - tapeworms - parasitic
scolex - head, proglottids with sexual organs, adult tapeworm buries scolex into wall of the intestine and is bathed in food
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Platyhelminthes
Schizocoelomates - coelom forms from mesoderm at the beginning of gut formation, blastopore becomes mouth
Mollusca
open circulatory system, foot for movement, simple digestive tract
Polyplacophora - chitons
Gastropoda - snails
Bivalvia - clams and their relatives
Cephalopoda - squid, octupus, nautilus
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Mollusca
Annelida
segemented body composed of somites, closed circulatory system, complex digestive tract (pharynx, stomach, gizzard, intestine), nephridia for nitrogen excretion
Oligochaeta - earthworms
Polychaeta - marine worms with parapodia (movement)
Hirudinea - leeches, parasitic
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Annelida
Bilateria - Protostomes - Ecdysozoa
Arthropods - horshoe crabs, crustaceans, spider, ticks, mites, lice and insects and their allies
exoskeleton of chitin with cuticle, jointed legs, metamorphsis of egg - larvae - adult, may prevent intraspecific competition for food
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Arthropods
Nematoda - roundworms, psuedocoelomates - coelom partially lined with mesoderms
free-living and parasitic forms, terrestrial, freshwater and marine forms
sexual dimorphism, simple body plan, example used a common animal model: C. elegans
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Nematoda
Deuterostomes - Enterocoelomates - coelom forms from outpocketing of gut, blastopore becomes anus
Echinodermata - marine forms: starfish, sea stars, brittle fans, sea urchins
water vascular system, tube feet (locomotion, feeding and gas exchange)
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Echinodermata
Chordata
3 characteristics of chordates
notochord - long dorsal cord between digestive tract and nerve cord
nerve cord - develops into central nervous system
pharyngeal gill slits
Invertebrate Chordata
Urochordates = Tunicates (filter-feeders)
Cephalochordates = Lancelets (Amphioxus) - fish-like marine organisms
See Dr. Hieber's Links to more information on the Hemichordata, Urochordata and their allies
Vertebrate Chrodata - development of the endoskeleton
vertebral column replaces the notochord, skull (cranium) enclosing the brain, dorsal nerve cord enclosed in a groove in vertebral column
Blackboard at Saint Anselm College
Trademark and Disclaimers
Parts of this summary were adapted from Raven, P., G. Johnson. 1997. Biology (4th ed.). New York, McGraw-Hill Compannies.Viruses
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO30.html
Protists
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO31.html
Fungi
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO32.html
Lower Plants
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO33.html
Higher Plants
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO34.html
Animalia
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO38.html
Non-coelomate Animals
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO39.html
Mollusca and Annelida
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO40.html
Arthropoda and Echinodermata
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO41.html
Chordata
http://www.mhe.com/biosci/genbio/rjbiology/ELOs/ELO42.html
Copyright © 2001 Jay Pitocchelli. All rights reserved. The contents of this page are the intellectual property of Dr. Jay Pitocchelli for distribution to students enrolled in General Biology BI 04 at Saint Anselm College. These pages may not be copied, photocopied, reproduced, translated, or published in any electronic or machine-readable form in whole or in part without prior written approval of Jay Pitocchelli. Students enrolled in General Biology BI 04 at Saint Anselm College have permission to print this material for their lecture notes.
